Integrated Study Materials: Memory, Cell Biology, and Chemistry Flashcards

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Sensory memory

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A very brief buffer that holds incoming sensory information for a fraction of a second; only attended details pass to short-term memory. It allows the brain to process immediate sensory input for further encoding.

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Short-term memory

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Also called working memory; holds information actively for about 15–30 seconds and is capacity-limited (around 7 ± 2 items). It supports reasoning and temporary manipulation of information.

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Long-term memory

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A relatively unlimited store that retains information for hours to a lifetime; includes explicit (episodic, semantic) and implicit (skills, habits) memory. Encoding depth and rehearsal affect retention.

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Encoding

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The process of transforming information so it can be stored in memory; strategies like elaboration, imagery, and organization improve encoding and later recall. Deeper processing produces stronger traces.

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Forgetting causes

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Forgetting can result from decay (trace fading), interference (new or old information disrupting recall), or retrieval failure (missing cues). Understanding these helps design better study strategies.

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Study spacing

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Spacing study sessions over time improves retention compared with massed practice (cramming). Regular self-testing and teaching others further enhance long-term recall.

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Carbon backbone

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Carbon forms the backbone of organic molecules because it can make four covalent bonds and form chains and rings with diverse 3D shapes. These properties underpin the structure and function of biomolecules.

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Phospholipid

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An amphipathic molecule with two fatty acids, glycerol, a phosphate, and a head group; it self-assembles into bilayers to form cell membranes. The hydrophobic tails and hydrophilic heads drive membrane structure.

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Triacylglycerol

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A fat molecule composed of glycerol linked to three fatty acids by ester bonds; its main function is long-term energy storage. Saturated vs unsaturated fatty acids affect physical state at room temperature.

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Protein structure

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Proteins have hierarchical levels: primary (sequence), secondary (helix, sheet via hydrogen bonds), tertiary (side-chain interactions), and quaternary (multiple polypeptides). Structure determines function and can be disrupted by denaturation.

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Mitochondria

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Double-membraned organelles with their own DNA and ribosomes that perform cellular respiration to generate ATP. They have an inner membrane with cristae and a matrix where metabolic enzymes act.

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Osmosis

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Passive movement of water across a semipermeable membrane from higher free-water (lower solute) to lower free-water (higher solute) regions. Tonicity (hyper-, iso-, hypo-) describes the effect on cell volume.

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Cytoskeleton

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A dynamic network of microtubules, actin filaments, and intermediate filaments that maintains cell shape, enables motility, and provides tracks for intracellular transport. Microtubules are composed of tubulin dimers.

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States of matter

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Matter exists as solids, liquids, gases, and plasma; solids have fixed shape and volume, liquids have fixed volume but flow, gases have neither, and plasma is an ionized high-energy state. Temperature and pressure influence state transitions.

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Atom composition

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Atoms consist of protons, neutrons, and electrons; the atomic number equals proton count and defines the element. Isotopes vary in neutron number but have the same chemical behavior.

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The mole

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A unit representing $6.02 \times 10^{23}$ particles (Avogadro's number), used to convert between mass and number of atoms or molecules. Molar mass (g/mol) links grams to moles for a substance.

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Covalent bond

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A chemical bond formed by sharing electron pairs between atoms; can be polar or nonpolar depending on electronegativity differences. Multiple bonds (double, triple) are shorter and stronger than single bonds.

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Electrolyte

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A substance that dissociates into ions in water, conducting electricity; strong electrolytes (e.g., $HCl$, $NaCl$) fully ionize, while weak electrolytes (e.g., acetic acid) partially ionize. Water's polarity stabilizes ions via hydration.