United States History (1492–1783): Exploration to Independence Flashcards

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Christopher Columbus

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Italian explorer sponsored by Ferdinand and Isabella who sailed west in 1492 seeking Asia and instead encountered the Americas. His voyages opened sustained European contact with the New World and initiated waves of exploration and colonization. Columbus's landings marked the beginning of large-scale European involvement in the Western Hemisphere.

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Conquistadores

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Spanish soldiers and adventurers who led military expeditions in the Americas during the 16th century. Notable figures like Hernando Cortés and Francisco Pizarro overthrew native empires (Aztec and Inca) and seized wealth. Their campaigns emphasized conquest, extraction of resources, and the imposition of Spanish rule.

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Spanish Empire

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A centralized colonial system in the Americas governed through viceroys and colonial officials appointed by the crown. It combined military conquest, missionary activity, and extraction of gold and silver to enrich Spain. Catholicism was aggressively promoted, shaping social and political life across Spanish America.

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Viceroys

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Royal officials appointed by the Spanish crown to administer large territorial units (viceroyalties) in the Americas. They represented imperial authority, enforced royal policies, and coordinated colonial governance, taxation, and defense. Viceroys were central to the hierarchical, centralized nature of Spanish colonial rule.

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Missionaries

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Religious agents, primarily Catholic friars and priests, who sought to convert Indigenous peoples in Spanish and French colonies. They established missions that became centers of religious instruction, labor organization, and cultural change. Missions were instrumental to imperial control and the spread of European institutions.

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Roanoke

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England's first attempted permanent settlement in North America, established in 1587 and later found abandoned with no clear explanation. Known as the 'Lost Colony,' its failure delayed further successful English colonization attempts. Roanoke highlighted the difficulties of early overseas settlement.

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Jamestown

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The first permanent English settlement in North America, founded in Virginia in 1607. It struggled with disease, famine, and conflict with Indigenous peoples but survived and later prospered after the introduction of tobacco as a cash crop. Jamestown evolved into a plantation-based society with increasing reliance on indentured and enslaved labor.

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John Rolfe

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English colonist credited with successfully cultivating tobacco in Virginia and introducing a sweeter strain in 1613. His work turned tobacco into a profitable export and stabilized Virginia's economy. Rolfe's marriage to Pocahontas also symbolized a brief period of Anglo-Indigenous diplomacy.

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Tobacco Economy

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The cash-crop agricultural system centered in Chesapeake colonies like Virginia and Maryland built around tobacco cultivation. It generated wealth and land pressure, fueled expansion and conflict with Indigenous peoples, and increased demand for labor supplied by indentured servants and enslaved Africans. Tobacco monoculture shaped social hierarchies and colonial politics.

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Pilgrims

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Religious Separatists who sailed on the Mayflower and founded Plymouth Colony in 1620 to practice autonomous worship. They drafted the Mayflower Compact to establish a self-governing political body based on majority consent. Pilgrim settlements influenced later New England institutions and communal practices.

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Mayflower Compact

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A 1620 agreement signed by Pilgrim leaders aboard the Mayflower establishing a basic, self-governing political framework for Plymouth Colony. It pledged submission to laws made by the colony's leaders and is often cited as an early example of colonial self-government. The Compact set a precedent for consensual government in New England.

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Puritans

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A religious group from England seeking to reform and purify the Church of England who established the Massachusetts Bay Colony in the 1630s. They aimed to build a morally strict, covenantal society often described as a 'city upon a hill.' Puritans emphasized communal discipline, literacy for scriptural study, and a strong connection between religion and governance.

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City upon a Hill

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A phrase describing the Puritan aspiration for Massachusetts Bay to serve as a model Christian commonwealth whose moral example would inspire reform. It conveyed the sense of mission and public visibility that shaped Puritan social and political life. The concept justified strict religious conformity and communal discipline.

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Separation of Church and State

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A principle Puritans adopted in their colonies to keep civil government from corrupting religious authority and vice versa. While religious expectations strongly influenced social norms and laws, Puritans often limited official governmental control over church membership and doctrine. This early distinction was narrower than modern secularism but important for colonial governance.

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Rhode Island

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Colony founded by dissenters like Roger Williams who advocated for religious freedom and separation of church and state. Rhode Island became a haven for varied religious groups and promoted more tolerant policies than Massachusetts. Its founding embodied resistance to Puritan orthodoxy and rigid civic-religious ties.

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Connecticut

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A New England colony formed by Puritan settlers expanding west from Massachusetts, known for the Fundamental Orders (an early written colonial constitution). Connecticut combined town-based governance with broader colonial institutions and became an important center for Puritan New England life. It reflected the spread and diversification of Puritan settlement.

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Salem Witch Trials

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A 1692 series of prosecutions in Massachusetts marked by accusations of witchcraft that led to executions and imprisonments. The trials revealed social tensions, economic stresses, religious anxieties, and fracturing authority within Puritan communities. Their aftermath contributed to skepticism about theocratic governance and a decline in Puritan influence.

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Maryland

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A proprietary colony founded as a refuge for English Catholics under the Calvert family while also attracting Protestant settlers. Maryland struggled with religious conflict and experimented with policies like the Act of Toleration (1649) that granted limited rights to Christians. Competing interests eventually shaped its political and social development.

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New Amsterdam

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A Dutch colonial settlement founded on Manhattan Island that served as the capital of New Netherland, focused on trade and commerce. It was captured by the English and renamed New York in the Anglo-Dutch conflicts of the 17th century. Its diverse population and mercantile focus influenced the region's later economic role.

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Anglo-Dutch Wars

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A series of 17th-century naval and colonial conflicts between England and the Netherlands over trade supremacy and overseas territories. The wars led to the English seizure of New Netherland and expansion of English influence in North America. These struggles reflected broader European commercial rivalry shaping colonial empires.

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New York

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Formerly New Amsterdam, New York became an English colony and a royal colony by 1685, serving as a major port and commercial center. It featured a heterogeneous population and a strategic harbor that fostered trade and urban growth. New York's political evolution reflected imperial consolidation under the crown.

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Pennsylvania

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A proprietary colony granted to William Penn in 1681 as a refuge for Quakers and a place for religious toleration and orderly settlement. Pennsylvania promoted representative assembly government, equitable land policies, and rapid population growth, with Philadelphia becoming a major colonial city. Its policies encouraged diversity and economic development in the Middle Colonies.

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William Penn

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Proprietor of Pennsylvania and a prominent Quaker who founded the colony as a haven for religious freedom and fair relations with Indigenous peoples. He implemented liberal policies on land purchase, religious toleration, and civic government that attracted diverse settlers. Penn's Frame of Government helped shape Pennsylvania's political institutions.

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Quakers

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A religious group emphasizing inner light, pacifism, and egalitarianism who faced persecution in England and some colonies but found refuge in Pennsylvania. Quaker beliefs shaped Pennsylvania's culture, promoting religious tolerance, fair treatment of Indigenous peoples, and a relatively flexible social order. Their influence declined political dominance over time but left a significant imprint on colonial values.

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Carolina

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A colony granted to supporters of Charles II that initially encompassed a large territory and developed slowly before splitting into North and South Carolina. The colony developed diverse economies, including plantation agriculture in the south relying on enslaved labor. Political and geographic differences eventually formalized the separation into two colonies.

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Georgia

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Founded in 1732 as a buffer colony between British South Carolina and Spanish Florida and intended as a refuge for debtors and a military bulwark. Its original charter restricted land ownership and slavery, but settlers largely rejected these regulations. After the charter expired in 1752, Georgia moved toward typical plantation practices and became a royal colony.

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Yamasee War

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A 1715 conflict in South Carolina between colonists and a coalition of Native American groups, including the Yamasee, that resulted in heavy colonial losses and destabilization. The war undermined the Indian trade system and exposed vulnerabilities in frontier defenses. Its aftermath contributed to South Carolina becoming a royal colony for greater stability.

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New France

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The French colonial domain in North America centered on the St. Lawrence River valley, including Quebec and Montreal. It emphasized fur trading, missionary activity, and alliances with Indigenous peoples rather than large-scale settlement. French immigration was limited compared to British colonies, shaping a sparsely populated but strategically significant territory.

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Samuel de Champlain

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French explorer and founder of Quebec in 1608 who played a key role in establishing New France and alliances with Indigenous nations. Champlain's efforts initiated permanent French presence in northeastern North America and promoted exploration of the interior. He is often called the 'Father of New France.'

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Colonial Population Growth

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British North America's population grew rapidly from about 250,000 in 1700 to roughly 2.5 million by 1775 due to immigration, high birth rates, and enslaved African arrivals. This growth diversified the colonies ethnically and regionally, shifting political and economic dynamics. Expansion increased land pressure and intensified colonial interactions with Indigenous peoples.

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Philadelphia

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By 1776 Philadelphia had become the largest city in British North America and a major commercial, political, and cultural center. Its population diversity and port facilities made it crucial to colonial trade and revolutionary organizing. Philadelphia hosted Continental Congresses and was a hub for revolutionary leadership and print culture.

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Chesapeake Economy

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Refers to the economic system in Virginia and Maryland dominated by tobacco plantations and export-oriented agriculture. The economy relied increasingly on enslaved African labor and created a planter elite that shaped colonial politics and society. Soil exhaustion and market dependence influenced expansion and economic instability.

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Lower South Rice

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The agricultural regime in the Lower South (e.g., South Carolina, Georgia) centered on rice cultivation using intensive plantation methods. Rice production required specialized labor and knowledge often provided by enslaved Africans and led to high profitability and deeply entrenched slavery. The rice economy produced distinct social hierarchies and coastal plantation societies.

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New England Economy

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A regional economy based on mixed agriculture, fishing, timber, shipbuilding, and Atlantic trade rather than large-scale plantations. Town-centered life, family farms, and commercial shipping characterized New England economic activity. Its diversified economy fostered urban growth in port towns and involvement in transatlantic commerce.

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Middle Colonies

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Colonies such as New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware known as the 'Bread Colonies' for their grain production. They combined commercial cities, fertile farmland, and ethnic and religious diversity, leading to economic flexibility and rapid population growth. The Middle Colonies were important centers of trade and agricultural exports.

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Glorious Revolution

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The 1688 overthrow of King James II in England that reinforced parliamentary supremacy and influenced colonial governance by encouraging resistance to arbitrary rule. News of the Revolution prompted uprisings in some colonies and led to new colonial charters and assemblies asserting rights. It widened the political gap between colonial assemblies and imperial authorities.

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French and Indian War

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The North American theater of the Seven Years' War (1754-1763) fought between Britain and France with their respective Indigenous allies. British victory removed French territorial claims in North America but left Britain with massive war debt and new imperial responsibilities. The war's outcome set the stage for increased British taxation and colonial resistance.

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British Taxation

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Postwar fiscal policies in the 1760s and 1770s aimed at recouping debts and funding imperial defense led Britain to impose new taxes and regulations on the colonies. Measures such as the Stamp Act and Townshend Duties provoked colonial protests over 'no taxation without representation.' Fiscal policy thus became a central grievance leading toward revolution.

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Stamp Act

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A 1765 British law requiring colonists to purchase stamped paper for legal documents, newspapers, and other printed materials, effectively taxing many colonists directly. It sparked widespread protest, colonial unity in boycotts, and the formation of groups like the Sons of Liberty. The Act's repeal in 1766 came with Parliament's assertion of authority over the colonies.

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Townshend Duties

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A series of 1767 British import taxes on goods like glass, paint, paper, and tea intended to raise revenue and reinforce imperial authority. Colonists responded with nonimportation agreements and increased resistance, which heightened tensions and led to clashes such as the Boston Massacre. The duties fueled debates over parliamentary power and colonial rights.

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Boston Massacre

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A deadly 1770 confrontation in which British soldiers fired on a crowd in Boston, killing several colonists. The event became a rallying point for colonial opposition to British military presence and imperial policies. Propaganda around the incident helped galvanize resistance and shape public opinion in the colonies.

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Intolerable Acts

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A set of punitive British measures passed in 1774 in response to the Boston Tea Party, including closing Boston Harbor and revoking Massachusetts self-government. Colonists viewed these laws as violations of their rights and they helped unify disparate colonies in opposition. The acts prompted the First Continental Congress and coordinated resistance like boycotts.

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First Continental Congress

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A 1774 meeting of colonial delegates in Philadelphia that protested the Intolerable Acts, called for economic boycotts of British goods, and urged colonies to form Committees of Safety. It asserted that Parliament's actions were unconstitutional and sought to coordinate colonial responses while stopping short of declaring independence. The Congress marked a major step toward intercolonial cooperation.

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Lexington and Concord

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April 1775 clashes where British troops attempted to seize colonial military supplies at Concord and encountered armed colonial militia at Lexington, sparking the Revolutionary War. Skirmishes resulted in British casualties and demonstrated colonial willingness to use armed resistance. These battles galvanized support for broader colonial mobilization.

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Second Continental Congress

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A 1775-1781 assembly of colonial representatives that organized the war effort, created the Continental Army, and conducted diplomacy. It managed revolutionary governance, issued the Declaration of Independence in 1776, and oversaw military, financial, and foreign policy during the war. The Congress became the de facto national government.

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Continental Army

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The unified colonial military force established by the Second Continental Congress in 1775 to fight British forces. It was commanded by George Washington and included militia contingents and regular troops. The army's endurance, despite hardships, was crucial to American victory and eventual independence.

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George Washington

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Commander-in-chief of the Continental Army chosen for his military experience, leadership, and ability to unify diverse colonial interests. His strategy emphasized persistence, strategic retreats, and holding the army together through harsh conditions. Washington's leadership became a central factor in the Revolutionary struggle and postwar national identity.

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Olive Branch Petition

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A 1775 conciliatory appeal sent by the Second Continental Congress to King George III seeking reconciliation and a peaceful resolution while asserting colonial grievances. The petition reflected the Congress's initial hope to avoid full-scale independence. The king's rejection helped push colonial leaders toward declaring independence.

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Common Sense

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A 1776 pamphlet by Thomas Paine that powerfully argued for complete independence from Britain, championing republican government and criticizing monarchy. It reached a wide colonial audience and shifted public opinion toward supporting independence. Paine's clear rhetoric helped accelerate the move to declare independence.

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Declaration of Independence

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The formal 1776 statement adopted by the Second Continental Congress proclaiming the colonies' separation from Britain and articulating principles of natural rights and popular sovereignty. Largely authored by Thomas Jefferson, it listed grievances against the king and justified revolution. The Declaration marked the legal and moral break that defined the new nation.

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Revolutionary War Battles

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Key engagements included Bunker Hill (demonstrated colonial resolve despite British tactical victory), Saratoga (a major American victory that encouraged French entry), and Yorktown (the decisive siege leading to British surrender in 1781). These battles shaped military momentum and diplomatic outcomes. Combined with sustained resistance, they secured American independence.

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French Support

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France provided crucial military, naval, and financial assistance to the American cause after the 1777 American victory at Saratoga. French intervention turned the conflict into a wider international war and helped secure victory at Yorktown. Diplomatic alliance with France was decisive for American success and postwar negotiations.

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Treaty of Paris

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The 1783 treaty that formally ended the Revolutionary War, recognizing U.S. independence, establishing generous territorial boundaries, and promising fair treatment of Loyalists. It reflected successful American diplomacy and shifting European priorities. The treaty inaugurated the United States as an independent actor in international affairs.

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Loyalists

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Colonists who remained loyal to the British crown during the Revolution, including officials, merchants, and others with ties to Britain. Many faced persecution, property confiscation, or exile during and after the war, and some resettled in Canada or Britain. Loyalist experiences illustrate the deep divisions and social costs of the Revolution.